Learning Materials

General Linguistics

• H.Bussmann, Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft, Stuttgart 1983 (Kröners Taschenausgabe)
• Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge 1999
• H.Stammerjohann (ed.), Handbook of Linguistics. General and Applied Linguistics, Darmstadt 1975

The Semitic Comparison of Languages

• G.Bergsträsser, Introduction to the Semitic languages. Sprachproben und grammatische Skizzen, Darmstadt 1963.(English translation expanded, Winona Lake 1995)
• R.Hetzron, The Semitic languages, London -New York 1997
• E.Lipinski, Semitic Languages. Outline of a comparative grammar, Leuven 1997
• Ch.Rabin, Semitic Languages. An Introduction, Jerusalem 1991 (Hebrew)
• R.Stempel, Abriß einer historischen Grammatik der semitischen Sprachen, Frankfurt 1999
• D.Cohen, Dictionnaire des racines sémitiques. Fasc. 1 Paris 1970; Fasc. 2 Paris 1976. Fasc 3-8ff, Leuven 1993ff

On the Scriptures

• J.Naveh, Early History of the Alphabet, Jerusalem 2nd ed., 1987

On the Hebrew Grammars

• W.R.Garr, Dialect geography of Syria-Palestine, 1000-586 B.C.E., Philadelphia 1985
• J.Hoftijzer-K.Jongeling, Dictionary of the North-West Semitic inscriptions, 1.2, Leiden 1995

On Akkadian

• W.vonSoden, Grundriss der akkadischen Grammatik. Roma 3rd ed. 1995
• W.vonSoden, Akkadian Dictionary, Wiesbaden 1965-1981

On Ugaritic

• J.Tropper, Ugaritic Grammar, Münster 2000
• G.del Olmo Lete y J.Sanmartin, A Dictonary of the Ugaritic Language in the alphabetic tradition, Leiden 2nd ed. 2004

On Phoenician

• J.Friedrich-W.Röllig, Phoenician-Punic Grammar, 3rd ed., newly edited by M.G.A. Guzzo with the collaboration of W.R.Mayer, Roma 1999
• Ch.R.Krahmalkov, A Phoenician-Punic Grammar, Leiden 2001
• Ch.R.Krahmalkov, Phoenician-Punic Dictionary, Leuven 2000

On the History of the Hebrew Language

• Article "Hebrew Language" Encyclopedia Judaica 16, Jerusalem 1971, 1560-1662 (Ch.Brovender: Pre-Biblical; Y.Blau: Biblical; E.Y.Kutscher: The Dead Sea Scrolls; E.Y.Kutscher: Mishnaic; E.Goldenberg: Medieval; E.Eitan: Modern Period)
• M.Hadas-Lebel, Histoire de la langue Hébraique. Des origines à l'époque de la Mishna, Leuven 1995
• E.Y.Kutscher, A History of the Hebrew Language, Leiden 1982
• A.Sáenz-Badillos, A History of the Hebrew Langluage, translated by J.Elwolde, Cambridge 1993
• Ch. Rabin, Hebrew. In: A. Sebeok (Ed.), Current trends in linguistics Vol. 6, The Hague-Paris 1970, 304-346
• Ch.Rabin, Die Entwicklung der hebräischen Sprache, Wiesbaden 1988 (Publications of the Hochschule für Jüdische Studien Heidelberg No.2)

Epigraphic Old Hebrew

• G. I. Davies, Ancient Hebrew Inscriptions. Corpus and Concordance, Cambridge 1991. Vol.2, Cambridge 2004
• S.L.Gogel, A grammar of epigraphic Hebrew, Atlanta/Georgia 1999
• J.Renz-W.Röllig, Handbuch der althebräischen Epigraphik I-III, Darmstadt 1995 (edition with linguistic commentary)
• A.Schüle, Die Syntax der althebräischen Inschriften. A contribution to the historical grammar of Hebrew, Münster 2000
• Z.Zevit, Matres lectionis in ancient hebrew epigraphs, Cambridge/Mass. 1980

Grammars of Biblical Hebrew

• H.Bauer- P.Leander, Historische Grammatik der hebräischen Sprache, Halle 1922, reprint Hildesheim 1991 (paperback DM 98.-) (only introduction, scripture, phonology and form theory)
• G.Bergsträsser, Hebräische Grammatk (1.Teil: Einleitung, Schrift- und Lautlehre, Leipzig 1918), (2.Teil: Verbum, Leipzig 1929) more not published, reprint Hildesheim 1995 (also available separately, without Gesenius-Kautzsch Grammatik)
• K.Beyer, Althebräische Grammatik, Göttingen 1969 (reconstruction of the pre-exilic Hebrew according to the transcriptions, pronunciation traditions, kanaan. Sister languages)
• J.Blau, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, Wiesbaden 2nd ed. 1993 (theory of script and forms and summary of syntax according to Gen 37-45 and Jonah)
• C.Brockelmann, Hebrew Syntax, Neukirchen 1956
• W.Gesenius-E.Kautzsch, Hebräische Grammatik, Leipzig 281909, reprint Hildesheim 1995 (including syntax), attached is the grammar by G.Bergsträsser
• P.Joüon - T.Muraoka, A grammar of biblical hebrew I.II., Roma 1991 (including syntax)
• R.Meyer, Hebrew Grammar, original Göschen collection Volume 1 (introduction, script and phonology) 31982 ; Volume 2 (theory of forms, inflection tables) 31969; Volume 3 (theory of sentences) 31972; Volume 4 (register) 31972; with a bibliographical afterword by U.Rüterswörden, de Gruyter Studienbuch, Berlin 1992
• D.Michel, Grundlegung einer hebr. Syntax 1 (Sprachwiss Methodik. Genus + Numerus des Nomens), Neukirchen 1977.
  - Volume 2 (Der hebr Nominalsatz), Neukirchen 2004
• A.Sperber, A historical grammar of biblical Hebrew, Leiden 1966 (Reconstruction of the pre-Masoretic grammar on the basis of transcriptions)
• B.K.Waltke, An introduction to biblical hebrew syntax, Eisenbrauns 1990

Dictionaries of Biblical Hebrew

• W.Baumgartner, Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, Leiden 1967-1996 (HAL3). English translation Leiden 1998
• D.J.A.Clines, The dictionary of classical Hebrew, Vol. 1-4ff, Sheffield 1993-1998ff
• W.Gesenius, Hebräisches und aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament, 171915. reprint Heidelberg 1962
• W.Gesenius, 18th edition edited by R.Meyer, H.Donner, U.Rüterswörden, Berlin-Heidelberg 1987ff (so far 3 editions, 1987.1995.2005)

Bible-Hebrew Nomenology

• H.Rechenmacher, Personal names as theological statements, St.Ottilien 1997
• W.Richter, Materials of an ancient Hebrew database. The biblical Hebrew and Aramaic proper names morphologically and syntactically analyzed, St.Ottilien 1996

Late Bible Hebrew

• A. Kropat, Die Syntax des Autors der Chronik, Giessen 1909
• R. Polzin, Late biblical Hebrew, Missoula/Montana 1976

Samaritan Hebrew

• Z.Ben Chayyim, A grammar of samaritan hebrew, Jerusalem 2000 (Hebr. Jerusalem 1977)
• R.Macuch, Grammar of Samaritan Hebrew, Berlin 1969

Hebrew of the Dead Sea Manuscripts

• E.Y.Kutscher, The language and linguistic background of the Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), Jerusalem 1959 (Hebrew), English Leiden 1974
• E.Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Atlanta/Georgia 1986

Masoretic Hebrew

• I.Yeivin, The Hebrew language tradition as reflected in the Babylonian vocalization I.II., Jerusalem 1985 (Hebrew)
• I.Yeivin, Introduction to the Tiberian Masorah (Hebrew, translated into English by E.J.Revell) Missoula/Montana 1980

Summarizing Presentation of the Aramaic language

• K.Beyer, The Aramaic language, Göttingen 1986
• H.Gzella, Tempus, Aspect and Modality in Imperial Aramaic, Wiesbaden 2004
• E.Y.Kutscher, Aramaic. Encyclopedia Judaica 3, Jerusalem 1971, 259-287
• F. Rosenthal (Ed.), An Aramaic handbook. Part I/1 Texts (old-aram. / reichs-aram./ biblical-aram./ palmyrenic-,hatraenic-, nabataean-aram./ jewish-palestinian-aram.); Part I/2 (glossaries to the texts); Part II/1 Texts (Samaritan.-aram. / palestinian-syrian-aram./ syro-aram./ babylonian-talmudic-aram./ mandaean-aram./ new-aram.); Part II/2 (Glossaries), Wiesbaden 1967

Egyptian-Aramaic

• T.Muraoka-B.Porten, A grammar of egyptian aramaic, Leiden 1997, 2nd ed. 2004
• J.Hoftijzer-K.Jongeling, Dictionary of the North-West Semitic inscriptions, 1.2, Leiden 1995, 2nd ed. 2004

Bible-Aramaic Grammars

• H.Bauer-P.Leander, Grammatik des biblischen Aramäisch, Tübingen 1927, reprint Hildesheim 1995 (DM 108.-; the most detailed grammar, including syntax)
• K.Beyer, Die aramäischen Texte vom Toten Meer, Göttingen 1984. Supplementary volume Göttingen 1994 Volume II, Göttingen 2004
• E.Qimron, Aramit Miqrait, Biblical Aramaic, Jerusalem 1993 (Hebrew)
• F. Rosenthal, A grammar of biblical Aramaic, Wiesbaden 6th ed. 1995

Bible-Aramaic Dictionaries

• M.E.J.Richardson, The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament V: Aramaic Supplementary Bibliography, Leiden 2000 (English translation with revision of the German edition by W.Baumgartner, see Hebrew dictionaries)

Epigraphic non-rabbinic Hebrew

• B. Ridzewski, New Hebrew Grammar based on the oldest manuscripts and inscriptions, Frankfurt 1992

Grammars on rabbinic Hebrew

• K.Albrecht, New Hebrew Grammar based on the Mishnah, Munich 1913
• M.Bar Asher (Ed.), Studies in mishnaic hebrew, Jerusalem 1998
• M.Bar Asher, L'hébreu mishnique: études linguistiques, Leuven 1999
• S.Kessler-Mesguich, La langue des Sages. Matériaux pour une étude linguistique de l'hébreu de la Mishna, Paris-Louvain 2002
• E.Y.Kutscher, Hebrew language. Mishnaic, Encyclopedia Judaica 16, Jerusalem 1971, 1590-1607
• M.Pérez Fernández, An introductory grammar of rabbinic hebrew (translated by J.Elwolde), Leiden 1997. paperback 1999
• M.H./Z.Segal, Diqduq leshon hamMishneh, Tel Aviv 1936; the English version: A grammar of mishnaic hebrew, Oxford 1958, Paperback 1980 ( is a preform of the Hebrew edition)

Dictionaries on rabbinic Hebrew

• Ch.Albeck, Introduction to the Mishnah, Berlin 1971, pp.199-390
• G.Dalman, Aramaic-New Hebrew Dictionary to Targum, Talmud and Midrash, Göttingen 1938, reprint Hildesheim 1997 (DM 187.-)
• M.Jastrow, A dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud babli an yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature, New York 1950. reprints
• J.Levy, Dictionary of the Talmudim and Midrashim, Berlin Vienna 21924. reprint Darmstadt 1963
• M.Moresteht, A lexicon of the new verbs in tannaitic hebrew, Ramat Gan 1980 (Hebrew)

Grammars on Palestinian Aramaic

• G.Dalman, Grammatik des jüdisch-palästinischen AramäischLeipzig 2nd ed. 1905. reprint Darmstadt 1960. 1981
• St.E.Fassberg, A grammar of the palestinian Tragum fragments from the Cairo Genizah, Atlanta/Georgia 1990
• D.M.Golomb, A grammar of Targum Neofiti, Chico/Californ. 1985
• E.Y.Kutscher, Studies in Galilaean Aramaic, Ramat Gan 1976

Dictionaries of Palestinian Aramaic

• G.Dalman (see on rabbinic Hebrew)
• M.Jastrow (see on rabbinic Hebrew)
• J.Levy, Chaldean Dictionary of the Targumim.1.2, Leipzig 1881, reprinted Cologne 1959
• M.Sokoloff, A dictionary of jewish palestinian aramaic, Ramat Gan 1990, 2nd ed. 2002 (ca 25 pages correction)
• M.Sokoloff, A dictionary of Judean Aramaic, Ramat Gan 2003

Grammars on Babylonian Aramaic

• Y.Frank, Grammar for Gemara. An introduction to Babylonian Aramaic, Jerusalem 1995
• C.Levias, A grammar of the aramaic idiom contained in the babylonian Talmud, Cicinnati 1900. reprint Westmead / Farnborough /Hants. /England 1971
• M.L.Margolis, Die aramäische Sprache des babylonischen Talmuds, Munich 1910 (Grammatik, Chrestomathie, Wörterbuch)

Dictionaries on Babylonian Aramaic

• G.Dalman (see on rabbinic Hebrew/link)
• M.Jastrow (see rabbinic Hebrew/link)
• J.Levy (see Palestinian Aramaic/link)
• M.Sokoloff, A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods, Bar Ilan, Ramat Gan 2002

Summarizing presentations

• W.Bacher, Die hebräische Sprachwissenschaft vom 10. bis zum 16.Jh.. In: J.Winter-A.Wünsche (Ed.), Die Geschichte der rabbinischen Litteratur während des Mittelalters und ihre Nachblüte in der neueren Zeit, Trier 1894 133-235. reprint
• S.W.Baron, A social and religious history of the Jews Vol.VII: Hebrew language and letters, New York 1958
• D.Mierowski, Hebrew grammar and Grammarians throughout the Ages, Johannesburg 1955
• A. Schippers, Hebrew grammatical tradition. In: R.Hetzron (Ed.) The semitic languages, New York 1997, 59-65
• M.Steinschneider, Hebräische Übersetzungen des Mittelalters und die Juden als Dolmetscher, Berlin 1893. reprint Hildesheim 1968
• D.Tené, Hebrew linguistic literature, Encyclopedia Judaica 16, Jerusalem 1971, 1352-1401
• M.Thiel, Grundlage und Gestalt der Hebräischkenntnisse des frühen Mittelalters, Spoleto 1973
• I.E.Zwiep, The mother of reason and revelation. A short history of medieval jewish linguistic thought, Amsterdam 1997

Dictionaries

• J.Klatzkin, Osar ha-Munnachim ha-Philosofiyyim I-IV, 1928. reprint New York 1968

On Judeo-Arabic

• J.Blau, A grammar of medieval Judaeo-Arabic, Jerusalem 2nd ed., 1980 (Hebrew)
• J.Blau, The emergence and linguistic background of Judaeo-Arabic, Jerusalem 3rd ed., 1999

Summaries

• A. Bar Adon, The rise and decline of a dialect, The Hague 1975. 2nd ed. 1979
• J.Blau, The renaissance of modern hebrew and modern standard arabic: parallels and differences in the revival of two semitic languages, Berkeley 1981
• J.Fellman, The revival of a classical tongue. Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the modern Hebrew language, Paris 1973
• J.M.Landau, Language Study in Israel. In: T.A.Sebeok (Ed.), Current trends in linguistics 6, The Hague 1970, 721-745
• Ch.Rabin, Hebrew. The transition to modern hebrew. Modern hebrew. In: T.A.Sebeok (Ed.), Current trends in linguistics 6, The Hague 1970, 326-346
• H.B.Rosén, Contemporary Hebrew, The Hague 1977

Grammars

• L.Glinert, The grammar of modern Hebrew, Cambridge 1989
• S.Zemach-Tendler, Textbook of the Modern Hebrew Language, Norderstedt 1999

Dictionaries

• R.Alcalay, The complete hebrew-english dictionary. 4vls reprint (in one volume) Tel Aviv 1980
• A.Even-Schoschan, HamMillon hachchadasch. 8 vls., Jerusalem 1996
• J.Lavy, Langenscheids Handwörterbuch Hebräisch: I Hebr.-Deutsch, Berlin 1975; II: Deutsch-Hebr., Berlin 1980